is slow and cannot be measured. is multi-layered and complex. consists only of quantitative changes. is disorderly and disjointed.

the area between a child's current level of independent performance and the level of performance that the child could achieve with the help of adults and more skilled peers. a range of tasks that the child should be able to do as per her age but cannot. the process where two individuals who begin with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding. the process in which children learn to perform tasks as set by the elder members in a society.

are capable of hypotheticodeductive reasoning and propositional thought. are bound by centration and irreversibly of thought. cannot conserve, classify and seriate. begin to engage in make-believe and symbolic play.

The punishment and obedience orientation The social-order maintaining orientation The instrumental purpose orientation The universal ethical principle orientation

Spatial – Therapist Intra-personal – Salesperson Linguistic – Sculptor Bodily-kinesthetic – Athlete

language plays an important role in cognitive development of children. children learn language through a 'language acquisition device'. children's cognitive development occurs in stages. maturation of schemas leads to cognitive development in children.

is not at all helpful in children's learning. creates a hindrance in the process of children's learning. is helpful in identifying 'high', 'low' and 'non' achievers for the purposes of giving feedback to the parents. is very important since it gives insights into children's understanding and helps the teacher to reflects on her pedagogy.

to ignore and dismiss biological differences among the sexes. to reinforce gender roles as portrayed in the society. forming same-sex ability groupings. forming mixed-sex activity groups and promote discussion.

an asset and resource a hindrance a problem a systemic issue

the teacher uses the textbook as the only source of knowledge. the teacher segregates the children based on their abilities. the teacher uses rewards and punishments to direct children's behaviour. the teacher is flexible and caters to needs of individual children.

Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Albert Bandura B.F. Skinner

Large-print books Three dimensional maps and charts Talking books, felt bulletin boards Small-print worksheets

segregation of children on the basis of their abilities and provisioning of vocational training accordingly. diagnostic labelling of children based on their handicaps for identification of their limitations. provisioning of special education institutions for children with different handicaps. the philosophy that all children have a right to get equal education in a regular school.

giving challenging tasks and activities to prevent boredom. giving questions that require convergent thinking. providing specific instructions to solve problems. administrating memory based tests.

finding out their social and cultural context. a thorough physical health checkup. analyzing their reading and writing skills. assessing their ability to solve complex higher-order problems.

Talk to the learners to understand their needs and challenges faced by them. Asking the learners to enroll for tuition outside of school so that the teacher does not have to pay much attention to them. Motivate the students to set moderately challenging goals and provide appropriate instructional support. Form collaborative groups to work on activities and encourage students to support each other.

does not have any influence on plays an important role in is not related to has an insignificant role in

(i), (iii) (ii), (iii) (i), (iii), (iv) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)

complex; active simple; linear simple; individual complex; passive

dismiss ignore understand neglect

collaborative; competitive competitive; collaborative fearful; facilitative competitive; facilitative

Providing scaffolding especially when students learn a new skill. Emphasis on completion of work rather than learning. Giving tasks that are very easy. Creating a lot of opportunities for competition.

Children construct their own theories about various phenomenon around them. Children cannot think of concepts on their own and the primary role of teachers is to provide information. Children actively think about various phenomenon around them and have an urge to explore. Children are born with curiosity to learn about the world around them.

suggests that children from deprived backgrounds are not capable of learning. indicates that school has not been able to cater to the needs and interests of these children. proves that these children have genetic birth defects and hence should be pulled out from school. signifies that parents have not been able to support their children to learn.

are able to reflect on their own thought processes and shift to a higher level of cognitive activity. can develop misconceptions which interferes with their learning. get distracted and hence it is an ineffective pedagogical strategy. develop competitive tendencies that hinder learning.

teacher-centric progressive textbook-centric behaviouristic

There is a lot of cultural diversity in the development of children. Children across the world follow the same sequence and exact time of development. Development occurs in a neat, orderly set of stages predetermined by genetic factors. Development is simple and unidimensional.

Emergence of make-believe play. Development of logical thought that is concrete in nature. Rapid development of motor skills and overall physical growth. Development of scientific reasoning and ability to think abstractly.

does not play any role in plays very little role in is a primary agency of is a secondary agency of

Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky Howard Gardner Lawrence Kohlberg